Annotated Bibliography on History of Terrorism
Terrorism is an enigma that has taken over the world and the level of devastation and scourge that it has left over the world leaves a dark cloud behind. It has continued to take away the lives of the many recruits who have joined the terrorist facts and more disheartening are the innocent lives they take with them. The groups that have led the terrorist acts have transformed over the years and have been represented by different names but their agenda and methods are similar. Although there have been massive efforts to fight the terrorists, the groups have managed to reinvent themselves with their control spreading into many regions in the world. This paper assesses the history of terrorism through examining different peer reviewed articles from the 1980s to present day that have highlighted different issues of terrorism over the years.
Brian Michael Jenkins. (2012). Al Qaeda in Its Third Decade Irreversible Decline or Imminent Victory? Retrieved from http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/occasional_papers/2012/RAND_OP362.pdf
In this article, Jenkins assesses different aspects of Al Qaeda and how it has transformed and changed over the years. According to Jenkins, there have been a lot of changes to Al Qaeda over the years and although the war is not over yet, the faction’s strongholds are on a decline. Al Qaeda has faced some massive blows with their strongholds being decimated by the West and their leaders falling as well. The death of Osama Bin Laden their leader was a massive blow since it changed the war and their recruitment processes suffered massively as a result. The massive blows that have been dealt to the West are however significant and can be considered a major driving force for Al Qaeda. The September 11th attack, the control of the Arab regions where there were uprising offer the faction a massive strength in changing and radicalizing its people. The author however, notes that their strength is diminishing that does not mean that there is an end to the war in the horizon. Al Qaeda is far from done and until there can be a suppression of their activities and changes in their strongholds accomplished they are still strong and will continue to strike. Jenkins notes that changes are imminent and controls can be expected but there is a chance to ensure that the models that are adopted are aimed at freeing the people from the scourge that has affected the people for decades.
The writer has used books and reports that have traced the activities and models that have been written on the group and its devastation to the society in the past. There are differentiated books and records that the writer uses to track the activities of Al Qaeda from 1988. Archival information on their activities and their effects to the group has also been highlighted with their imminent controls that can be identified being measured. There are differentiated models that have been implemented in the group for years that the writer has collected. Making a comparison of the two sides of the war has been made through assessing news reports and assessing the change of the tide that can be expected. The examination of differentiated reports has helped massively in understanding the aspects that are used. There is the use of correspondents and reports that have been done by different people in the region. The examination of a large number of reports have helped in identifying the models that have been used by the author of the report that has been critical in identifying different aspects that are critical in giving the people a chance to communicate and derive the best models that are needed.
The paper lacks in offering empirical evidence and historical aspects that can be identified to have taken the same models and processes. In giving the evidence on the curse of the war and the effects different events have had in the processes and models that have happened, there needs to be information on similar events that had the same models. The article is insightful and offers different aspects that are critical in the war. The information on what can be expected in the region is important in discerning the next step and having an inner understanding of the war. The next step in this case would be to understand how an event or different aspect of the war may have transformed the changes identified. For instance understanding how the effects of another leader such as Osama Bin Laden may influence the war.
Fawaz A. Gerges. (2014, December). ISIS and the Third Wave of Jihadism. Retrieved from http://currenthistory.com/Gerges_Current_History.pdf
Fawaz investigates and looks to uncover the different dynamics and attributes of ISIS that has become a more notorious group to the Al Qaeda wave. The author draws comparisons to the origins of the group and identifies the different models that have been used to ensure that it has taken over the world through its terrorism acts. There are differences in the models that the two factions have used but the ruthlessness and meticulous planning that has been characteristic of the group has led to scores of deaths and radicalization that has changed the world. The modern history in the region due to the scores of death in the Iraq war has rejuvenated the members to form a stronger wave that consists of Saddam Hussein’s sympathizers who had formed the group. There were changes that were identified in the models that were adopted and an imminent model that was critical in giving the people the power and control. The author argues that the Western influence in the region has been a major impediment and has been critical in giving the people a chance in the society. There have been changes in the models that have been identified with critical models that have been highlighted in the societal structures realized. Fawaz assesses the effects of different models that have been identified and is modeled through the hearts and minds that are used to influence others in the region.
The writer uses the examination of records and factors that have been identified through different correspondents in the region. With an insider view of the region, Fawaz has views and information collected from different sources that are in line with the models needed. There have been differentiated aspects that have been implicit in offering an informed choice and information of the important factors affecting the people in the society. However, it is important to note that most of the sources cannot be substantiated or sourced since he has not offered the sources for the information in his reference list. As opposed to the source above, the research and information on the article cannot be replicated through the models that have been given. It is important to note that there are changes that can be identified from the structures used. There are no empirical evidence models or information that can be used to give an analysis or evidential statements that can be used.
The paper is however important in offering the historical concepts and basis for the formation of the current aspects that are being identified under ISIS. ISIS has been identified as a major organization that has changed and instituted archaic methods and the article offers insights. The article has opened up an avenue for the research into the concepts and factors that can be used in future to understand the changes that have given rise to ISIS.
Thomas Plümper and Eric Neumayer. (2010). The friend of my enemy is my enemy: international alliances and international terrorism. Retrieved from http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/30748/1/__Libfile_repository_Content_Neumayer,%20E_The%20friend%20of%20my%20enemy%20is%20my%20enemy_The%20friend%20of%20my%20enemy%20is%20my%20enemy%20(LSE%20RO).pdf
The authors of the article offer an insightful review of the reasons for terrorism giving a differentiated view that is looks to explain reasons why terrorists attack different countries that allies to their government. According to the authors, terrorism is cowardly acts that the people orchestrating look to use to control the government instead of taking democratic processes. As terrorists look to instill fear to their government, they target a more powerful ally to their government to ensure that they force their government to action. Through integrating and igniting a war with other regions they gain the audience needed with their government since their power is reinforced. These acts are orchestrated in an attempt to change the models that are used by individuals in the society and changes that are imperative in building strong governments and models. The article assesses the situation in Middle East and the different wars that are identified as a result.
The authors have conducted an empirical research where they have identified different parameters and controls that are implicit in terrorism and terrorist acts across different region. A test of hypothesis has been conducted to ensure that the research has been based on the best aspects that can be identified hitherto. The research in comparison to the two articles above has a more in-depth model. There needs to be areas of research that has been identified and controls to ensure that the research can be replicated. The paper offers information that is imperative in forming an empirical view of the issues and opens up research on different aspects that can be assessed and derived in future through the data collected. It is an in-depth review that opens up the subject for further research.
Ross, J. I. (2007). Deconstructing the terrorism–news media relationship. CMC, 3(2), 215-225. Retrieved from http://www.jeffreyianross.com/uploads/Ross-__terrorism_and_media.pdf
Article Jeffrey Ian Ross, “Deconstructing the terrorism – news media relationship,” highlight the impacts of the media terrorism. Ross asserts that the media plays an integral role in opposing terrorism activities. The media is an important player in terrorism activities because terrorists depend on the media to get the publicity and further their agenda. Terrorism cannot thrive without a media platform to spread their propaganda. Traditionally, terrorists relied on media such as TV and radio to pass their message and claim liability of terrorists’ activities. However, with the development of technology terrorists have diversified their means and are using the social media platform in radicalizing and spreading propaganda. Ross article indicate that the media such as newspaper, radio and television are very important actors because of how they debate and lead cover incidences of terrorism. He argues that media has the power of affecting the impacts of terrorism and that just as the media is powerful in fighting terrorism activities the same media play an integral role in propagating terrorism activities. The many terrorists’ activities since 1950s have been carried out by terrorists groups from Islamic countries and over the past 5 decades, fundamentalists’ muslins have been considered as the major terrorists groups in the world. This has led the media and politicians to claim that terrorism is closely affiliated to Islamic religion. This association has led to widespread perception that many Muslims are either sympathizers to terrorism activities. After the 9/11, bombing media led to call for all muslins to take responsibility of the terrorists’ activities. The media and the politicians questioned the role of the muslins as a religion in fighting terrorist activities. The FBI interrogated up to 800,000 muslins living in the US. There was an increased widespread perception from the media especially the social media that muslins were not doing enough to stop terrorist activities. The victimization and stereotyping of the muslins in the US has been cited by many scholars as one of the reason behind increased radicalization.
Ross explained the role of the media in terrorism activities through meta-analysis of studies from law, communication studies, political science and sociology materials. His study also relied on newspaper and publication from the government about terrorist activities since 1970s. The article explains that terrorists use media strategically and time the media to reach the intended audience. Ross asserts that the purpose of terrorists is to create fear to the targeted audience and force government to take actions. Usually, many of terrorists’ activities are protests towards government’s actions. Ross argues that terrorist needs media to propagate their agenda and create fear and intimidation to the intended audience. At times terrorists try to hijack media and commandeer their message. Additionally, the social media have created a good platform to spread their propaganda. Ross indicated how the media interacted with terrorism activities and revealed organization of terrorism and highlighted terrorists’ sources. Ross article showed the role of the media in stopping terrorist activities. It also showed the role of the media in facilitating terrorism. However, the article concluded that although the media influence terrorism, it does not cause terrorism. Ross also argued that because of the current development in technology and creation of many media platforms such as social media, the media continues to impact terrorism.
Victoroff, J. (2005). The Mind of the Terrorist A REVIEW AND CRITIQUE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES. JOURNAL OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION,49(1), 3-42.
Jeff Victoroff article, “The Mind of the Terrorist,” highlight the psychology and the reasons behind increased terrorism activities. The article used data and materials from unclassified materials such as the mainstream media and government publications. The article highly theoretical and heavily relies on explanation of the anecdotes based on observing and analyzing the data. Victoroff article start by showing the genesis of terrorism activities and asserts that it started way before the dawn of recorded history. The article asserts that many of the terrorist activity are a way revolting to the ideology of the ruling class in a particular state. Because of globalization of commercial activities, terrorism has also taken a global dimension and has spread across the globe. Victoroff article asserts that the major reason for the increased terrorism has increased because of the disparities in economy, social differences and emergence of religious fundamentalism. He also argues that terrorism has also influenced by privatization of weapons of mass destruction and secular trends. This trend has led to micro managed of terrorist activities in the hands of a small group of people. Victoroff article argues that terrorism activities involve an aggression towards a group and that defies the expectation of the societies or the terrorist group. He used self-imagined theory to explain that terrorism emerges because of some people are believe in a certain moral perspective which they think it should be reflected to the entire society. Such people hold fundamentalist ideals and might push the ideals through recruiting a group of like-minded individuals. For example, the self-imagined messianic Hitler believed that his had a divine role to reduce the influence of the Jews in the world. Other leaders such as Osama bin Laden also believed that they had ordained to carry out a role of emancipating the Arabs from the tyranny of the west and justified their actions through religion. Victoroff argues that terrorists believe that they carry out their action because of fulfilling a common good and that they are fighting because of a cause. Some terrorists believe that they are fighting for freedom. Many terrorists have something in common in that they all loath the western community. They are able to recruit and radicalize people followers who share the same ideals against western influence in the Muslim world. The article argues that many of the terrorist activities especially the violent ones have been driven by ethnic or religious animus that overrides the expectation of the society. However, the article argues that many terrorist activities are driven by shallow materialistic aims. Good is ISIS group, which took advantage of the leadership gap in Iraq and Syria to thrive. These terrorist groups have been majorly driven by their desire to take leadership position of these countries. The article conducted a demographic analysis of the terrorists and concluded that averages of most of the terrorists ranged between 22 to 31 years. The data also revealed that most of the terrorists were male who had previous criminal record and that most of them came from middle-or upper-middle-class background. Additionally, most of the terrorists also had a college education. Victoroff theory explains that social, political and evolutionary circumstances are the major reason that drives terrorism activities. The article used rational choice theory and relative deprivation/oppression theory to explain the likelihood of people revolting and turning to terrorism. Victoroff article concludes that despite of many theories trying to explain terrorist activities, terrorists display heterogeneous characteristics. Every terrorists like common human behavior is driven by complex innate drive to join and further terrorist activities. Victoroff criticize psychological theories and argues that they are insufficient in explaining and predicting terrorist behaviors. This article is important in the study because it help to reveal the complex nature of terrorist. It helps us to get deeper insight of complex and dynamic nature of terrorism and the multiple factor that impact terrorism.
Pape, R. A. (2003). The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. American Political Science Review, 97(3), 343-361.
Robert A. Pape article, “The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism,” reveals the pattern of modern terrorism especially why suicide terrorism is rising. Pape highlight that suicide terrorism is rising across the globe. He explains that the rise is because of the success of the suicide bombing. The article use historical incidence of terrorism activities since 1980 to 2001 to reveal the pattern. Unlike other article that fails to explain the reason for increased terrorism, this article argues that terrorism follows a strategic logic, specifically aimed at fighting the modern liberal democracy. Suicide terrorism started in 1983 to force French and American military to leave Lebanon. The article shows that over the decades, suicide terrorism has been used to compel democratic nations such as the US and other western countries to evacuate countries that they are trying to push their democratic agenda such as Iraq, Libya and Afghanistan. Pape article indicate a similar patterns where terrorists emerge as a force to resist the liberal democracy ideals pushed by the western nations. The article use military occupation in foreign countries and its direct correlation to increased suicide bombing to support its theory of reason of increased suicide bombing. Statistics show that they are increased cases of suicide bombing in countries dominated by foreign military.
This article was important in revealing history of terrorism and showing a different perspective on the increased cases of terrorism. The article bases its argument on the strategic and the major role of terrorist as opposing western democracies and claims that to achieve their goals terrorists use diversified means such as religious fundamentalists to radicalize and create a following.
Conclusion
The peer review of articles used in this study indicates that terrorism has a wide and a long history. The article tried to explain the organization, reasons and impacts of terrorism in various dimension. The article found out that terrorism is caused by a multiplicity of factor. Some article argues that the increase of terrorism activities is because of privatization of weapon, opposition to trends in modern secular world, resisting modern liberal democracy, and behavioral differences of people. Some article also argues that media have profound impact on terrorism in influencing radicalization and trying to stop terrorism activities. These articles show that terrorism is diverse and complex and there is no single theory that can explain the trend, reason or organization of terrorists.
References
Brian Michael Jenkins. (2012). Al Qaeda in Its Third Decade Irreversible Decline or Imminent Victory? Retrieved from http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/occasional_papers/2012/RAND_OP362.pdf
Fawaz A. Gerges. (2014, December). ISIS and the Third Wave of Jihadism. Retrieved from http://currenthistory.com/Gerges_Current_History.pdf
Pape, R. A. (2003). The Strategic Logic of Suicide Terrorism. American Political Science Review, 97(3), 343-361.
Ross, J. I. (2007). Deconstructing the terrorism–news media relationship. CMC, 3(2), 215-225. Retrieved from http://www.jeffreyianross.com/uploads/Ross-__terrorism_and_media.pdf
Thomas Plümper and Eric Neumayer. (2010). The friend of my enemy is my enemy: international alliances and international terrorism. Retrieved from http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/30748/1/__Libfile_repository_Content_Neumayer,%20E_The%20friend%20of%20my%20enemy%20is%20my%20enemy_The%20friend%20of%20my%20enemy%20is%20my%20enemy%20(LSE%20RO).pdf
Victoroff, J. (2005). The Mind of the Terrorist A REVIEW AND CRITIQUE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL APPROACHES. JOURNAL OF CONFLICT RESOLUTION,49(1), 3-42.